national language and laguage planning

Language in society

NATIONAL LANGUAGE and LANGUAGE PLANNING

Members :

CHAIRANI ANNISA ( 2317.043 )

NURTIS SOLIHAT ( 2317.073 )

VIVI AZHARA( 2317.059 )

RADHA YUNIARTA( 2317.082 )

LECTURE :

IRWANDI Lc.Ma

STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUTE OF BUKITTINGGI

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

2018M/1440H

PREFACE

Praise to God almighty for the blessing of his grace, and that we were given the opportunity to be able to complete a working paper entitled “National Language and Language Planning” is properly and correctly, and on time.

This paper is structure so that readers can know about National Language and Language Planning. This paper was complied with help from various parties. Both parties come from outside as well as from parties concerned itself. And because the aid and help of God almighty, these papers can be finally resolved.

The compliers also thanked to Mr.Irwandi as the teacher/tutors in English subject. Who have many professors help compliers in order to complete this paper.

Hopefully this paper can give a broader insight to the reader. Although this paper have advantages and disadvantages. For advice and comment please his constituents. Thank you.

Bukittinggi, 01 Oktober 2018

Authors

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

CHAPTER I

A.    Issue Background……..…………………….…………………………

B.     Problem formulation…………..….………….………………………..

C.     Purpose of the paper………..…………………………………………

CHAPTER II

A.    National Language………………………….…………………………………..

B.     Official language............................……………………………………………..

C.     Language Planning…...........................…..……………………………………..

D.    Codification..............……………………………………………………………

CHAPTER III

A.      CONCLUSION………………………………………………………..

B.      SUGGESTION…………………………………………………………

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.    ISSUE BACKGROUND

Charles dickens was a prolifice and highly influential in 19th century British author, who penned such acclaimed works as “Oliver Twist”, “A Christmas Carol”, “David Copperfield”,and  “Great Expectation”.

Charles Dickens (Februari 7,1812 to June 9,1870), was a British novelist, journalist, editor, illustrator and social commentator who wrote such beloved classic novels as a Oliver Twist, and so on. Dickens is remembered as one of the most important and influential writers of the 19th century. Among his acomplishments, he has been lauded for providing a stark portrait of the Victorian era underclass, helping to bring about societal change. When Dickens died of a stroke, he left his final novel The Myster Of Edwin Drood, unfinished

B.     PROBLEM FORMULATION

1.      What is the National Language?

2.      What is the Official Language?

3.      How are the process Language Planning?

4.      What is the codification of national Language?

C.    THE PURPOSE OF THE PAPER

1.      To know about national Language

2.      To know is the official language

3.      To know how the process language planning

4.      To know how the codification of nationa language

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A.     National  and Official Language

A National Language is the language of a political, cultural and social unit. It is generally developed and used as a symbol of national unity. Its function are to identify the nation an unite the people of the nation.

An official language by contrast, is simply a language which may be used for goverment bussiness. Its functions is primarily utilitarian radher than symbolic.

In resolving the issue of the relative status of spanish and Guarani, the Paraguayan goverment use to different terms, national language an official languange. In socio linguistics the distinction between a national languange an official languange is generally mad a long the affective-referential deminsion, or more precisely and in this context, the ideological-instrumental dimension. A national languange is the languange of a political, cultural, and social unit. It funcitions are to identify the nation an unite the people of the nation. An official langunge, by contrast, is simply a languange which may be used for gverment bussiness. it is possible, of course, for one languange to serve both functions.

Not suprisingly, goverment do not always recognise the distinctions made by sociolinguisticts. They used the terms official and national to suite their political ends, as the Paraguayan case illutrates. In paraguay the goverment declaret both guarani and Spanish to be, national languange, while Spanish was also identified as an official languange. In other counties such as, Tanzania, just the revers is found. There is one natinal language, swahili, but two official languanges, Swahili an english. Many countries make no distinction between a national languange an official languange. In contries which regard themselves. As monolingual nation, the same languange serves both purposes. In multilingual comunities, however, all kinds of permutation have been used in order to satisfy both political and sicial goals on the one hand, and more pratical and utilitarian needs on the other.

In mutilingual contries,the govermant often the declares a particular language to be national language for political reasons. The declaration may be a step in the process of asserting the nationhood of newli independent of estabilished nation, for intance as in the case of Swahili in Tanzania, Hebrew in israel, Malay in Malaysia, and indonesian in indonesia. Where this national language can not serve all the internal and external functions of govermant bisnis however, its has than been neccesary to identify one more official language as well. So french is an official language in many countries, such as Zaire, Ivory Coast and Chad, where france was previously as colonial power, and arabic is an official language in israel along side Hebrew.

The identification of official languages may also be necessary when the choice of national language is problematic. In multilingual india, for example, attempts to give Hindi sole status as thr national language have not succeeded. Fourteen regional Indian language are recognised as official langual alongside English and Hindi for country as a whole, and in addition different states each have their own official langauges. Telegu for instance, is the official language the state of Andhra Pradesh. Like paraguay, other contries have nominated more than one national language. Zaire, for instance has four Africans language as national languages, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo, but only one official language french. In Haiti, the 1983 contitution declared Haitian Creolea national language alongside french,but there too French serve as only official language.

Official status and minority languages

Because of its collonial history as well as its value a a world languages an international lingua franca, Engliash is an official language in many countries throughtout the world such as Pakistan, Fiji, vanuatu, Jamaica and the Bahamas, as well as those listed above. After its shares this official status with and indigenous language such as malay in malaysia, Swahili in tanzania, and Gibertese in Kiribati. But, interestingly,English is not legally an official languages of England,the United States of America,or New Zealand. In these countries in has not been concidered necessary to legislate thaht the language of the majority is an official language. In New Zealand irronecally,althought Engllish is in fact the official languages of goverrment and education,maori is the only language which has been legally declared an offcila language.

Example 

Te ringa mangu, is one of a number of maori activist who have compaigned for many years fo maori rights. An articuate, stimulating abrasive public speaker he has open ended up coourt on charges of breaching the peace as result of his protest. There his has insisted on addressing the court in maori a language until recently was not was not recognised by the new zealand courts. Now he has the right to address the court in maori and the court will provide a person to translate his words into English.

Maori was declared an official languange of New Zaeland 1987. What that means, however, is far from clear. Cynics have describe it as merely a cosmetic produced aimed at qiuetening the demands of mario activist. But the declaration clearly gives the languange a status it did not have previosly, an acknowladges its sumbolic importance to the country as a whole, as well as to the indgenous Maori people in particular, it can also be regerded as a postive statement of intent a first step in a process which may encourage the use of Maori in an incresing number of official instituational domains such as the law courts, official goverment ceremonies and transaction, and in education.

Maori activies campaigned for many years for the right to use Maori in official and administrative contexts. Most used peaceful means but minority groups have often taken very radical action in order to get official recognition for their anguange. In Wales administration recgnices Welsh as a languange of goverment and a education, but it has no official status in britain. Wels activities have painted out english road signs in protes against the dominance of english and the English, and the President of Plaid Cymru ( the Wels Nationalist Party ) promised to fast to the death to get a Welsh television chanel.

Many minorities would like to gain official status for their languange, but the cost in terms of providing services and informatin in all official languange are considerable, and most goverments count them carefully, in Canada, for instance, as well as French speakers and the indigenous Canadian peoples, such as the Cree and Mohawk, there are many other Canadian minorities Italians, Portugies, Chirise, and Ukrainians, for instance. Together they make up about 27 per cent of the total Canadian population. Many reason the special status of the French eho make up only 28 per cent of the population. Providing services, information, legal representation and, in same places education in just two official languanges in an expensive bussiness it seems unike other minorities will earm such rigts aesily.

What Price A National Languange ?

Many countries have regarded the deveopment of single national language as a way of symbolising the unity of nation. One nationa, one languange has been popular an effective slogan. In earlier countries the national languange of a political entity often emerged naturally and relatively unselfconsciously over a period of time. English in England, Freench in France, panese in Japan, Spanish in spain seem obvious examples. Here were very few languanges eith this kind of status before about 1500. Then the number increased dramatically, especially the ninetheen century as linguistics nationalism in Europe, it has almost doubled again in the twentieth century with the emergence of colonised countries from colonial rule into independent nation states.

Over the last hundred year nationhood and independence have been vrty important political issue throughout the world. In the struggle to setablish a distinct nayional identity, to secure independence from colonial rule, the development of national language has often played and impotant part. The symbolic value of a national languange as a unifiying ralliying point in the fight for independence was quickly appreciated in countries such as Tanzania. In order multilinguual coutries, such as China, the Soviet, the Phippinese and Indonesia. Whre ther are large population speaking hundreds of different vernaculars, a national language is not only a useful lingual franca and official languange, it also servese a symbolic unifiying function for these natioan too.

In Indonesia by contrast the goverment did not cellect the languange of the political and social etitc , the Japanese as the national languange instead they developed and standardised a varety of Malay which was widely used in Indonesia as a trade languange. Since Japanese has a to complex linguistically marked politeness system based on assessments of relative status, this was an eminendy sensible decision. Indeed the succesful spraed fo Indonesian owes a great deal to the fact that it is a very useful neutral choice in many situations.

Like India, some African countries have avoided selecting just one languange as national languange, since the wrong choice could easily lead to riots and even war. Tanzania, however successfully adopted Swahili as its national languange, and the story of how this was achieved illustrates nicely what is involved when a country decides to develop an indigenous languange for use as national languange. Linguists are often involved in this process of languange planning. In the next section we will examine the steps which must be taken.

B.     Planning for a National Official Languange

Languange Planning – defenitions

1.      According to Haugen (1950s) : “all conscious efforts that aim a changing the linguistucs behavior of speech community”

2.      According to Fishman (1987) : “the authoritative allocation of resources to the attainment of languange status and corps goals, whether in connection with new function that are aspired to, or in connection with old function that need to dischanged more adequately”

3.      Dictionar defintion (dictionary.com) : “the development of policies and programs designed to direct or change languange use, as through the establishment of an development or altemation of wrting system”

Languange planning is official, goverment level activity concerning administrative languange or languanges. It represents a choherent effort by induviduals, groups, or organizations of infuluence language use or development.

What is involved in developing a code or variety so that it is suitable for official use ? addressing this challenge involves issues relating to the form of the variety, the function it serves, and the attitudes people hold toward it.

There are genereally four interralated steps :

1)     Selection : choosing the veriety or code to be developed.

2)     Codification : standardsing its strutural or linguistics features. This kind of ‘linguistic processing’ is sometime called corpus planning.

3)     Elaboration : extending its functions for use in new domains. This involves developing the necessary linguistics resources for handling new concepts and contexts.

4)     Securing : its acceptance. The status of new variety is important, and so people‘s attitudes to the variety being developed must be considered steps may be needed to enhance its prestige for instance, and to encorage people to develop pride in the language or loyalty towards it.

Selecting the code to be developed is often an entiraly political decission, though linguistics may point out the different linguitics problem presented by selecting one variety rather than another. Acceptance by the people generally require endorcement by politicians an socially prestigious groups. So, selection an acceptance are steps which involve social and political factors. Codification and elaborating the code to handle a wider range of functions are, by contrast, essentially linguistic process. Producing a dictionary and ensuring there are words available for teaching maths in the variety, for instance, are problems for linguists. In pratice, however, all these steps are closely interrelated, as examples below will demonstrate.

            Tanzania

                        Selecting a code

            Tanzania faced the dilemma of which language to choose as its official national language. Choosing one language from over a hundred indgenous languages, each associated with a particular tribe, would have simply provoked discontent, if not intertribal warfare. Choosing english for newly independent nation seerned inappropriate (though many other nations have had little choice but to use the language of the colonisers as their only official language). The first President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, chose Swahili, a languageof the Bantu language family, which was widely used throughout the country as a lingua franca in many contexts. There were some obvious reasons for his choice. Some were pragmatic. Swahili was already the medium of primary education, for instance and so all Tanzanians learned the language at school. Other obvious reasons were more ideological. Ninety-six percent of  Tanzania’s Languages are Bantu language, like swihili, so it could be clearly identified as an Africa Language. Moreover, Swahili had served as the lingua franca of the anti-colonial political movement for independence. In this role it had acted as a kind of socialcement between very disperate groups. It could hardly have had better credentials from a political and social pint of view.

            Codifying and elaborating Swahili

            The process of standardising Swahili was begun the British administration well before independence. In the 1920s a southern variety of Swahili, used in Zanibar, was selected as the basis for the standard. The fact that it was being used in primary basis for education and for administration meant standardisation was essential. Its codification involved developing a standard speeling system, describing the grammar of the variety  selcted as the new standard, and writing a dictionary to records its vocabulary.

            Following Tanzanian independence in 1961, Swahili was used in more and more contexts for education, administrartion, politics and law. Its vocabulary was expanded to meet the demands of new contexts by borrowing freely form Arabic and English as appropriate. President Nyerere intended that eventually it sould be used for post-primary education, in the Higher Courts, and in all areas of government. This meant intensive work in order to develop the necessay vocabulary and technial terms, and an enormous amount was achieved in a short space time. In 1984, however, the government decided not to extend Swahili-medium education to secondary and tertiary education. English is being for these levels.

           

            Attitudes to Swahili

            The role of Swahili, in unifying the people of Tanzania to work for independence, guaranteed it prestige and positive attitudes. The charisma of  Nyerere him slef cerried over of the language and he used extensively in his speechs and his political writings. He uesd it in domains where formerly English had been used Exclusively he also translated Shakesperae’s Julius Caesar and The Merchant of Venie into Swahili and thhis too increased its status. People have often seen the success of Swahili as the national language in Tanzania  as due to its ‘neutral’ status it is not indetified with a particular tribe. But its widespread acceptance was also due to facet that Tanzania developed a strong. Loyalty towards the language which united them in working towards uhuru (‘freedom’).

            The story of the acceptance of Swihili as the national language of Tanzania is therefore an interesting one. Swahili serves asa lingua franca in a country with hundreds of different tribal vernaculars. It provides a culturally acceptable symbol of unity. Linguistic diversty can seem problematic to those working for political unification. It is pontentially divisive. Swahili has provided a very convenient compromise in Tanzania might be told rather differently by a group whose tribal vernacullarwas a competing lingua franca.

            In this section the steps involved in developing a particularcode of variety for use as a national language have been discussed in realationto a large multilingual contry, Tanzania, where are the competing varieties are distinct languages. Exactly the same processes and steps are relevant in the deliberate development of particular dialect for use as national language in a monolingual country, as we shall see in the next section in relation to Norway, a country with a relatively small and homogeneous population.

C.      Developing a Standard Variety in Norway

·         Selecting a code

Esenstially the Norwegian govenment had the choice of developing a national language from standard Danish or from local Norwegian dialects. While Danish offered all the advantages of being codified in dictionaries and grammars, it was the language of H and the ‘oppressors’ from whom Norway had gained independence. So although choosing Danish would have reduced the linguistic problems facing the planners, it presented different kind of problems. Standard  Danish was not used variety for informal intreaction, especially in rural areas, and people’s attitudes towrads the language were generally at least ambivalent, if not hostile. On the other hand, choosing a variety from among the regional Norwegian diaelects raised problems relating to the form and new functionsa required of a standard languange. Any dialect selected would need codifying and would require evtensive functions elaboration. And the problem of which dialect to select raised obvious headches in realation to people’d attitudes.

Two different attemps were made to solve the problem. One attempt involve a variety based on Danish with some modifications in the direction of Nowergian pronounciation. This eventually developed into Bokmall, the varietymentionad in the decription of Hemnesberget in example 6 in the first chapter. The other approach created a new Norwegian standard by crawing on a range of rulal Nowergian dialects. It was first called Landsmal ( languange of the country ), and later Nyorsk ) new Nowergian)

·         Codification and Elaboration

The Nynorsk solution, which involved amalgamating features from several dialects, is the most intriguing from a linguistic point of view. This composite variety was essentially the brainchild of Ivor Aasean, a school techer who had studied Norwegian dialects. He wrote a grammar 40.000 word dictinary of the variety he was advocating as the new Norwegian standard. As a result this artificialy constructed variety truned to be one of the best described languanges around at the time. Aasen identified common grammatical patterns in defferents dialect, and he chose vocabuary from a range of differents regions. Where there was the choise of word forms he seleted thoose he concidered laeast ‘corupted’ or “contaminated” by Danish. Rular dialect resorces also solved the problem of functional elaboration, or extending the use of Norwegian into domains where Danish had previuosly been the only appropriate code. New words were needed for many concepts which had previuosly been discuused only in Danish so Aasen used dialect forms as his main resource for creating new words.sine tha late nineteenth century then, Norway has had these two competing official written variaties. Language planners have been trying to bring the two closer together (into Samnorsk or ‘united Norwegian’) though continued codification efforts. Example 4 above shows that as a result of this process, the two varieties are now very close. They are certainly (that is, they have the same number of contrasting sounds), though particular prounciations differ. Their syntax is almost identical. Tehy differ mainly in the form or particular words (e.g. heimlige vs heimlege), and in spelling (e.g. fra ves fra). So the arguments are essentially about the appropriate form of a written Norwegian standard. Pronouncerments are regularly made by the Norwegian Language about which spellings of particular words are officially sanctioned. Offical documents are printed in both varieties and children are expexted to be able to read both, though local councils ehich which varieties is to be used in the local schools.

·         Acceptance

what about the problem of attitudes to these two varieties. Though Norwegian nationalities enthusiastically welcomed Nyorsk, the Norwegian-based variety, and rejected the moditified Danish alternative, the influential educated city-dwellers did not. They regarded a standard based on rural dialects as rustic and uncivilised. If Nyorsk was to be accepted at all, govrernment support was essential. And it was also neccessary to persuade influential public  figures to  endorse and to use the new  variety in public contexts. Aasen successed in this to the extent that in 1885 Landsmal was voted official equality with Danish, in 1929 it was relabelled Nyorsk, and by 1960 it was he chief language of instruction for 23,5 percent of all school children. But the other 76.5 percent were taught in Bokmal.

In practice, then, it is clear that Bokmal rather than Nyorsk has been winning out. It is used in most books and by most schools as a medium of instruction. Though some people insist on Nyorsk as the, most dislike its country