Language in society
NATIONAL
LANGUAGE and LANGUAGE PLANNING
Members :
CHAIRANI ANNISA (
2317.043 )
NURTIS SOLIHAT (
2317.073 )
VIVI AZHARA( 2317.059 )
RADHA
YUNIARTA(
2317.082 )
LECTURE :
IRWANDI
Lc.Ma
STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUTE OF
BUKITTINGGI
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND
TEACHER TRAINING
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
2018M/1440H
PREFACE
Praise
to God almighty for the blessing of his grace, and that we were given the
opportunity to be able to complete a working paper entitled “National
Language and Language Planning” is properly and correctly, and on time.
This
paper is structure so that readers can know about National
Language and Language Planning. This paper was complied with help from
various parties. Both parties come from outside as well as from parties
concerned itself. And because the aid and help of God almighty, these papers
can be finally resolved.
The
compliers also thanked to Mr.Irwandi as the teacher/tutors in English subject. Who
have many professors help compliers in order to complete this paper.
Hopefully
this paper can give a broader insight to the reader. Although this paper have
advantages and disadvantages. For advice and comment please his constituents.
Thank you.
Bukittinggi, 01 Oktober 2018
Authors
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER
I
A.
Issue Background……..…………………….…………………………
B.
Problem formulation…………..….………….………………………..
C.
Purpose of the paper………..…………………………………………
CHAPTER
II
A.
National Language………………………….…………………………………..
B.
Official language............................……………………………………………..
C.
Language Planning…...........................…..……………………………………..
D.
Codification..............……………………………………………………………
CHAPTER
III
A. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………..
B. SUGGESTION…………………………………………………………
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. ISSUE BACKGROUND
Charles dickens was a
prolifice and highly influential in 19th century British author, who penned such
acclaimed works as “Oliver Twist”, “A Christmas Carol”, “David
Copperfield”,and “Great Expectation”.
Charles Dickens (Februari
7,1812 to June 9,1870), was a British novelist, journalist, editor, illustrator
and social commentator who wrote such beloved classic novels as a Oliver Twist,
and so on. Dickens is remembered as one of the most important and influential
writers of the 19th century. Among his acomplishments, he has been lauded for
providing a stark portrait of the Victorian era underclass, helping to bring
about societal change. When Dickens died of a stroke, he left his final novel
The Myster Of Edwin Drood, unfinished
B.
PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.
What is the National Language?
2.
What is the Official Language?
3.
How are the process Language Planning?
4.
What is the codification of national Language?
C.
THE
PURPOSE OF THE PAPER
1. To know
about national Language
2. To know
is the official language
3. To know how the
process language planning
4. To know
how the codification of nationa language
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. National and Official Language
A National Language is the
language of a political, cultural and social unit. It is generally developed
and used as a symbol of national unity. Its function are to identify the nation
an unite the people of the nation.
An official language by
contrast, is simply a language which may be used for goverment bussiness. Its
functions is primarily utilitarian radher than symbolic.
In resolving the issue of the
relative status of spanish and Guarani, the Paraguayan goverment use to
different terms, national language an official languange. In socio linguistics
the distinction between a national languange an official languange is generally
mad a long the affective-referential deminsion, or more precisely and in this
context, the ideological-instrumental dimension. A national languange is the
languange of a political, cultural, and social unit. It funcitions are to
identify the nation an unite the people of the nation. An official langunge, by
contrast, is simply a languange which may be used for gverment bussiness. it is
possible, of course, for one languange to serve both functions.
Not suprisingly, goverment do
not always recognise the distinctions made by sociolinguisticts. They used the
terms official and national to suite their political ends, as the Paraguayan
case illutrates. In paraguay the goverment declaret both guarani and Spanish to
be, national languange, while Spanish was also identified as an official
languange. In other counties such as, Tanzania, just the revers is found. There
is one natinal language, swahili, but two official languanges, Swahili an
english. Many countries make no distinction between a national languange an
official languange. In contries which regard themselves. As monolingual nation,
the same languange serves both purposes. In multilingual comunities, however,
all kinds of permutation have been used in order to satisfy both political and
sicial goals on the one hand, and more pratical and utilitarian needs on the
other.
In mutilingual contries,the
govermant often the declares a particular language to be national language for
political reasons. The declaration may be a step in the process of asserting the
nationhood of newli independent of estabilished nation, for intance as in the
case of Swahili in Tanzania, Hebrew in israel, Malay in Malaysia, and
indonesian in indonesia. Where this national language can not serve all the
internal and external functions of govermant bisnis however, its has than been
neccesary to identify one more official language as well. So french is an
official language in many countries, such as Zaire, Ivory Coast and Chad, where
france was previously as colonial power, and arabic is an official language in
israel along side Hebrew.
The identification of official
languages may also be necessary when the choice of national language is
problematic. In multilingual india, for example, attempts to give Hindi sole
status as thr national language have not succeeded. Fourteen regional Indian
language are recognised as official langual alongside English and Hindi for
country as a whole, and in addition different states each have their own
official langauges. Telegu for instance, is the official language the state of
Andhra Pradesh. Like paraguay, other contries have nominated more than one
national language. Zaire, for instance has four Africans language as national
languages, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo, but only one official language
french. In Haiti, the 1983 contitution declared Haitian Creolea national
language alongside french,but there too French serve as only official language.
Official status and
minority languages
Because of its collonial
history as well as its value a a world languages an international lingua
franca, Engliash is an official language in many countries throughtout the
world such as Pakistan, Fiji, vanuatu, Jamaica and the Bahamas, as well as
those listed above. After its shares this official status with and indigenous
language such as malay in malaysia, Swahili in tanzania, and Gibertese in
Kiribati. But, interestingly,English is not legally an official languages of
England,the United States of America,or New Zealand. In these countries in has
not been concidered necessary to legislate thaht the language of the majority
is an official language. In New Zealand irronecally,althought Engllish is in
fact the official languages of goverrment and education,maori is the only
language which has been legally declared an offcila language.
Example
Te ringa mangu, is one of a
number of maori activist who have compaigned for many years fo maori rights. An
articuate, stimulating abrasive public speaker he has open ended up coourt on
charges of breaching the peace as result of his protest. There his has insisted
on addressing the court in maori a language until recently was not was not
recognised by the new zealand courts. Now he has the right to address the court
in maori and the court will provide a person to translate his words into
English.
Maori was declared an official
languange of New Zaeland 1987. What that means, however, is far from clear.
Cynics have describe it as merely a cosmetic produced aimed at qiuetening the
demands of mario activist. But the declaration clearly gives the languange a
status it did not have previosly, an acknowladges its sumbolic importance to
the country as a whole, as well as to the indgenous Maori people in particular,
it can also be regerded as a postive statement of intent a first step in a
process which may encourage the use of Maori in an incresing number of official
instituational domains such as the law courts, official goverment ceremonies
and transaction, and in education.
Maori activies campaigned for
many years for the right to use Maori in official and administrative contexts.
Most used peaceful means but minority groups have often taken very radical
action in order to get official recognition for their anguange. In Wales administration
recgnices Welsh as a languange of goverment and a education, but it has no
official status in britain. Wels activities have painted out english road signs
in protes against the dominance of english and the English, and the President
of Plaid Cymru ( the Wels Nationalist Party ) promised to fast to the death to
get a Welsh television chanel.
Many minorities would like to
gain official status for their languange, but the cost in terms of providing
services and informatin in all official languange are considerable, and most
goverments count them carefully, in Canada, for instance, as well as French
speakers and the indigenous Canadian peoples, such as the Cree and Mohawk,
there are many other Canadian minorities Italians, Portugies, Chirise, and
Ukrainians, for instance. Together they make up about 27 per cent of the total
Canadian population. Many reason the special status of the French eho make up
only 28 per cent of the population. Providing services, information, legal representation
and, in same places education in just two official languanges in an expensive
bussiness it seems unike other minorities will earm such rigts aesily.
What Price A National
Languange ?
Many countries have regarded
the deveopment of single national language as a way of symbolising the unity of
nation. One nationa, one languange has been popular an effective slogan. In
earlier countries the national languange of a political entity often emerged
naturally and relatively unselfconsciously over a period of time. English in
England, Freench in France, panese in Japan, Spanish in spain seem obvious
examples. Here were very few languanges eith this kind of status before about
1500. Then the number increased dramatically, especially the ninetheen century
as linguistics nationalism in Europe, it has almost doubled again in the twentieth
century with the emergence of colonised countries from colonial rule into
independent nation states.
Over the last hundred year
nationhood and independence have been vrty important political issue throughout
the world. In the struggle to setablish a distinct nayional identity, to secure
independence from colonial rule, the development of national language has often
played and impotant part. The symbolic value of a national languange as a
unifiying ralliying point in the fight for independence was quickly appreciated
in countries such as Tanzania. In order multilinguual coutries, such as China,
the Soviet, the Phippinese and Indonesia. Whre ther are large population
speaking hundreds of different vernaculars, a national language is not only a
useful lingual franca and official languange, it also servese a symbolic
unifiying function for these natioan too.
In Indonesia by contrast the
goverment did not cellect the languange of the political and social etitc , the
Japanese as the national languange instead they developed and standardised a
varety of Malay which was widely used in Indonesia as a trade languange. Since
Japanese has a to complex linguistically marked politeness system based on
assessments of relative status, this was an eminendy sensible decision. Indeed
the succesful spraed fo Indonesian owes a great deal to the fact that it is a
very useful neutral choice in many situations.
Like India, some African
countries have avoided selecting just one languange as national languange,
since the wrong choice could easily lead to riots and even war. Tanzania,
however successfully adopted Swahili as its national languange, and the story
of how this was achieved illustrates nicely what is involved when a country
decides to develop an indigenous languange for use as national languange.
Linguists are often involved in this process of languange planning. In the next
section we will examine the steps which must be taken.
B. Planning
for a National Official Languange
Languange Planning –
defenitions
1.
According to Haugen (1950s) :
“all conscious efforts that aim a changing the linguistucs behavior of speech
community”
2.
According to Fishman (1987) :
“the authoritative allocation of resources to the attainment of languange
status and corps goals, whether in connection with new function that are aspired
to, or in connection with old function that need to dischanged more adequately”
3.
Dictionar defintion
(dictionary.com) : “the development of policies and programs designed to direct
or change languange use, as through the establishment of an development or
altemation of wrting system”
Languange planning is official,
goverment level activity concerning administrative languange or languanges. It
represents a choherent effort by induviduals, groups, or organizations of
infuluence language use or development.
What is involved in developing
a code or variety so that it is suitable for official use ? addressing this
challenge involves issues relating to the form of the variety, the function it
serves, and the attitudes people hold toward it.
There are genereally four
interralated steps :
1)
Selection : choosing the
veriety or code to be developed.
2)
Codification : standardsing its
strutural or linguistics features. This kind of ‘linguistic processing’ is
sometime called corpus planning.
3)
Elaboration : extending its
functions for use in new domains. This involves developing the necessary
linguistics resources for handling new concepts and contexts.
4)
Securing : its acceptance. The
status of new variety is important, and so people‘s attitudes to the variety
being developed must be considered steps may be needed to enhance its prestige
for instance, and to encorage people to develop pride in the language or
loyalty towards it.
Selecting the code to be
developed is often an entiraly political decission, though linguistics may
point out the different linguitics problem presented by selecting one variety
rather than another. Acceptance by the people generally require endorcement by
politicians an socially prestigious groups. So, selection an acceptance are
steps which involve social and political factors. Codification and elaborating
the code to handle a wider range of functions are, by contrast, essentially
linguistic process. Producing a dictionary and ensuring there are words
available for teaching maths in the variety, for instance, are problems for
linguists. In pratice, however, all these steps are closely interrelated, as
examples below will demonstrate.
Tanzania
Selecting a code
Tanzania faced the dilemma of which language to choose as
its official national language. Choosing one language from over a hundred
indgenous languages, each associated with a particular tribe, would have simply
provoked discontent, if not intertribal warfare. Choosing english for newly
independent nation seerned inappropriate (though many other nations have had
little choice but to use the language of the colonisers as their only official
language). The first President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, chose Swahili, a
languageof the Bantu language family, which was widely used throughout the
country as a lingua franca in many contexts. There were some obvious reasons
for his choice. Some were pragmatic. Swahili was already the medium of primary
education, for instance and so all Tanzanians learned the language at school.
Other obvious reasons were more ideological. Ninety-six percent of Tanzania’s Languages are Bantu language, like
swihili, so it could be clearly identified as an Africa Language. Moreover,
Swahili had served as the lingua franca of the anti-colonial political movement
for independence. In this role it had acted as a kind of socialcement between
very disperate groups. It could hardly have had better credentials from a political
and social pint of view.
Codifying and elaborating Swahili
The process of standardising Swahili was begun the
British administration well before independence. In the 1920s a southern
variety of Swahili, used in Zanibar, was selected as the basis for the
standard. The fact that it was being used in primary basis for education and
for administration meant standardisation was essential. Its codification
involved developing a standard speeling system, describing the grammar of the
variety selcted as the new standard, and
writing a dictionary to records its vocabulary.
Following Tanzanian independence in 1961, Swahili was
used in more and more contexts for education, administrartion, politics and
law. Its vocabulary was expanded to meet the demands of new contexts by borrowing
freely form Arabic and English as appropriate. President Nyerere intended that
eventually it sould be used for post-primary education, in the Higher Courts,
and in all areas of government. This meant intensive work in order to develop
the necessay vocabulary and technial terms, and an enormous amount was achieved
in a short space time. In 1984, however, the government decided not to extend
Swahili-medium education to secondary and tertiary education. English is being
for these levels.
Attitudes to Swahili
The role of Swahili, in unifying the people of Tanzania
to work for independence, guaranteed it prestige and positive attitudes. The
charisma of Nyerere him slef cerried
over of the language and he used extensively in his speechs and his political
writings. He uesd it in domains where formerly English had been used
Exclusively he also translated Shakesperae’s Julius Caesar and The Merchant of
Venie into Swahili and thhis too increased its status. People have often seen
the success of Swahili as the national language in Tanzania as due to its ‘neutral’ status it is not
indetified with a particular tribe. But its widespread acceptance was also due
to facet that Tanzania developed a strong. Loyalty towards the language which
united them in working towards uhuru (‘freedom’).
The story of the acceptance of Swihili as the national
language of Tanzania is therefore an interesting one. Swahili serves asa lingua
franca in a country with hundreds of different tribal vernaculars. It provides
a culturally acceptable symbol of unity. Linguistic diversty can seem
problematic to those working for political unification. It is pontentially divisive.
Swahili has provided a very convenient compromise in Tanzania might be told
rather differently by a group whose tribal vernacullarwas a competing lingua
franca.
In this section the steps involved in developing a
particularcode of variety for use as a national language have been discussed in
realationto a large multilingual contry, Tanzania, where are the competing varieties
are distinct languages. Exactly the same processes and steps are relevant in
the deliberate development of particular dialect for use as national language
in a monolingual country, as we shall see in the next section in relation to
Norway, a country with a relatively small and homogeneous population.
C.
Developing a Standard Variety in Norway
·
Selecting a code
Esenstially the Norwegian govenment had the choice
of developing a national language from standard Danish or from local Norwegian
dialects. While Danish offered all the advantages of being codified in
dictionaries and grammars, it was the language of H and the ‘oppressors’ from
whom Norway had gained independence. So although choosing Danish would have
reduced the linguistic problems facing the planners, it presented different
kind of problems. Standard Danish was not
used variety for informal intreaction, especially in rural areas, and people’s
attitudes towrads the language were generally at least ambivalent, if not
hostile. On the other hand, choosing a variety from among the regional
Norwegian diaelects raised problems relating to the form and new functionsa
required of a standard languange. Any dialect selected would need codifying and
would require evtensive functions elaboration. And the problem of which dialect
to select raised obvious headches in realation to people’d attitudes.
Two different attemps were made to solve the
problem. One attempt involve a variety based on Danish with some modifications
in the direction of Nowergian pronounciation. This eventually developed into
Bokmall, the varietymentionad in the decription of Hemnesberget in example 6 in
the first chapter. The other approach created a new Norwegian standard by
crawing on a range of rulal Nowergian dialects. It was first called Landsmal (
languange of the country ), and later Nyorsk ) new Nowergian)
·
Codification and Elaboration
The Nynorsk solution, which
involved amalgamating features from several dialects, is the most intriguing
from a linguistic point of view. This composite variety was essentially the
brainchild of Ivor Aasean, a school techer who had studied Norwegian dialects.
He wrote a grammar 40.000 word dictinary of the variety he was advocating as
the new Norwegian standard. As a result this artificialy constructed variety
truned to be one of the best described languanges around at the time. Aasen
identified common grammatical patterns in defferents dialect, and he chose
vocabuary from a range of differents regions. Where there was the choise of
word forms he seleted thoose he concidered laeast ‘corupted’ or “contaminated”
by Danish. Rular dialect resorces also solved the problem of functional
elaboration, or extending the use of Norwegian into domains where Danish had
previuosly been the only appropriate code. New words were needed for many
concepts which had previuosly been discuused only in Danish so Aasen used
dialect forms as his main resource for creating new words.sine tha late
nineteenth century then, Norway has had these two competing official written
variaties. Language planners have been trying to bring the two closer together
(into Samnorsk or ‘united Norwegian’) though continued codification efforts.
Example 4 above shows that as a result of this process, the two varieties are
now very close. They are certainly (that is, they have the same number of
contrasting sounds), though particular prounciations differ. Their syntax is
almost identical. Tehy differ mainly in the form or particular words (e.g.
heimlige vs heimlege), and in spelling (e.g. fra ves fra). So the arguments are
essentially about the appropriate form of a written Norwegian standard.
Pronouncerments are regularly made by the Norwegian Language about which
spellings of particular words are officially sanctioned. Offical documents are
printed in both varieties and children are expexted to be able to read both,
though local councils ehich which varieties is to be used in the local schools.
·
Acceptance
what about the problem of
attitudes to these two varieties. Though Norwegian nationalities
enthusiastically welcomed Nyorsk, the Norwegian-based variety, and rejected the
moditified Danish alternative, the influential educated city-dwellers did not.
They regarded a standard based on rural dialects as rustic and uncivilised. If
Nyorsk was to be accepted at all, govrernment support was essential. And it was
also neccessary to persuade influential public
figures to endorse and to use the
new variety in public contexts. Aasen
successed in this to the extent that in 1885 Landsmal was voted official
equality with Danish, in 1929 it was relabelled Nyorsk, and by 1960 it was he
chief language of instruction for 23,5 percent of all school children. But the
other 76.5 percent were taught in Bokmal.
In practice, then, it is clear
that Bokmal rather than Nyorsk has been winning out. It is used in most books
and by most schools as a medium of instruction. Though some people insist on
Nyorsk as the, most dislike its country
